Browsing by Author "Parkinson, Sydney"

Now showing 1 - 10 of 10
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    Can’t stop worrying? Examining the mechanisms of generalized anxiety disorder
    (2023) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) experience excessive and chronic worry over various daily events. If left untreated, GAD tends to be impairing and chronic. Existing research has shown negative beliefs about worry (NBW), positive beliefs about worry (PBW), intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and fear of emotions to be associated with GAD. However, the existing research is primarily cross-sectional. The present longitudinal study examined whether changes in NBW, PBW, IU, and fear of emotions predict changes in pathological worry and GAD symptoms over time. Undergraduate psychology students (N = 372), pre-screened for high levels of worry, completed a series of online self-report measures assessing worry, GAD symptoms, NBW, PBW, IU, and fear of emotions. Participants completed the questionnaires again 4 months later. Changes in NBW, IU, and fears of emotions predicted changes in worry severity. Additionally, changes in NBW and IU were the only mechanisms to predict changes in GAD symptoms. Further, NBW was the strongest predictor of changes in both worry and GAD. These findings have implications for the understanding and treatment of GAD. Primarily targeting NBW, while incorporating IU and fear of emotions into therapy, may enhance the treatment of GAD.
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    Dysfunctional beliefs related to generalized anxiety disorder: a categorical versus dimensional approach
    (2021) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    Previous research suggests that individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) hold maladaptive beliefs that predict the onset and maintenance of GAD. This study examined various dysfunctional beliefs related to GAD to see whether different beliefs would be associated with GAD symptoms when GAD was considered dimensionally versus categorically. A sample of undergraduate students who were pre-screened for a high degree of worry (N = 344) completed online self-report measures. These scales measured GAD symptoms, intolerance of uncertainty (IU), negative beliefs about worry (NBW), positive beliefs about worry, fear of depression and fear of anxiety, and cognitive avoidance. Participants were also classified as Probable GAD (n = 211) or Non-GAD (n = 133) based upon DSM-5 criteria. All dysfunctional beliefs correlated with GAD symptoms. Multiple regression analyses revealed that IU, NBW, and fear of depression were unique predictors of dimensional GAD symptom severity. Logistic regressions revealed that IU and NBW were unique predictors of being in the Probable GAD group. NBW was the strongest predictor of both GAD symptom severity and Probable GAD categorization. These findings support previous research suggesting that results show some variation depending on whether GAD is conceptualized dimensionally or categorically. Further, among dysfunctional beliefs that contribute to GAD, NBW is the strongest predictor of both dimensional symptom severity and endorsing the symptoms consistent with a DSM-5 diagnosis of GAD. Therefore, NBW should be a primary focus of GAD research and therapy.
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    Generalized anxiety disorder: does the emotion dysregulation model predict symptoms beyond the Metacognitive Model?
    (2022) Deleurme, Kendall A.; Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    While the Metacognitive Model (MCM) of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is well-established, the Emotion Dysregulation Model (EDM) of GAD has received less attention. This study examined whether the EDM helps explain GAD above and beyond the MCM. The influence of gender was also explored. A non-clinical university sample (N = 626) completed measures of GAD symptoms, worry severity, the MCM, and the EDM. In support of the EDM, it was found that fear of depression predicted GAD symptoms for men, while fear of anxiety predicted GAD symptoms for women. However, across genders, the strongest predictor of GAD symptoms and worry severity was negative beliefs about worry. While these findings support the MCM view that holding the beliefs that worry is harmful and dangerous is the strongest predictor of GAD overall, incorporating aspects of the EDM into our understanding and treatment of GAD may be beneficial.
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    Longitudinal examination of causal and maintaining dysfunctional beliefs in generalized anxiety disorder
    (2021) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by excessive and chronic worry. Various psychological models have implicated dysfunctional beliefs as causal and maintaining factors in GAD. The two models that have received the most empirical support include the Intolerance of Uncertainty Model and the Metacognitive Model. Existing research has shown intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and negative beliefs about worry (NBW) to be important factors in GAD. However, the existing research is primarily cross-sectional, which does not allow researchers to determine whether IU or NBW cause and maintain GAD. This study sought to longitudinally examine whether changes in IU and NBW predict changes in worry severity and GAD symptoms. It is hypothesized that NBW will be the stronger predictor of GAD development and maintenance compared to IU. Undergraduate psychology students, scoring high on a pre-screen measure of pathological worry, are currently being invited for inclusion in the study. Online self- report measures will be administered to eligible participants (N = 650) to assess levels of worry, GAD symptoms, positive and negative affect, IU, NBW, negative problem orientation, cognitive avoidance, and fear of emotions. Participants will be invited to return after 4-months to complete the same series of online questionnaires. To date, a sample of 509 participants have completed the initial assessment and 212 participants have completed the 4-month follow-up assessment. Findings from this study will help clarify whether IU or NBW more strongly influence GAD. Additionally, findings could have implications for the treatment of GAD.
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    Negative beliefs about worry outperform other beliefs associated with generalized anxiety disorder
    (2021) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by excessive and chronic worry. Negative beliefs about worry (NBW), intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and additional dysfunctional beliefs have been associated with GAD symptoms and worry severity. This study examined which dysfunctional beliefs are uniquely associated with GAD and worry severity, above and beyond negative affect (NA). A sample of pre-screened high worry undergraduates (N = 348) participated. They completed online self-report measures of worry, GAD symptoms, positive affect (PA), NA, NBW, IU, negative problem orientation, cognitive avoidance, and fear of emotions. All dysfunctional beliefs, and PA and NA, correlated with worry severity and GAD symptoms in the expected directions. Regression analyses found that, after controlling for PA and NA, NBW, IU, negative problem orientation, and fear of anxiety were unique predictors of worry severity. Unique predictors of GAD symptoms included PA, NA, NBW, and cognitive avoidance. These results were found in high worriers, which supports results from prior clinical and unselected non-clinical studies. Among dysfunctional beliefs that contribute to GAD, NBW has the strongest association with GAD and worry severity. Thus, NBW should be a primary focus of GAD research and therapy.
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    Testing an online worry induction procedure
    (2022) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    In-person worry induction procedures effectively induce increases in state worry, negative affect, and anxiety. However, the efficacy of conducting a worry induction online has yet to be examined. This study investigated the effectiveness of an online worry induction, as well as the predictors of an individual’s emotional response to the induction. A sample of 268 undergraduates completed online self-report measures of worry, GAD symptoms, state positive affect (PA), state negative affect (NA), and state anxiety. Participants were then prompted to worry for 5 minutes, after which they completed the measures of PA, NA, and anxiety a second time. As expected, the participants experienced an increase in NA and anxiety, as well as a decrease in PA. GAD symptoms and trait worry severity were both found to predict changes in NA and anxiety, but neither predicted changes in PA. Further, the magnitude of the emotional changes was less pronounced than was observed in a previous in-person worry induction. Our findings suggest that an online worry induction can lead to reported increases in overall distress, and appear to reflect trait levels of worry severity and GAD symptoms. However, the intensity of the worry appears to be less pronounced than in-person induction procedures. Potential methods for improving an online worry induction will be discussed.
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    Testing an online worry induction procedure
    (2022) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    In-person worry induction procedures effectively induce increases in state worry, negative affect, and anxiety. However, the efficacy of conducting a worry induction online has yet to be examined. This study investigated the effectiveness of an online worry induction, as well as the predictors of an individual’s emotional response to the induction. A sample of 268 undergraduates completed online self-report measures of worry, GAD symptoms, state positive affect (PA), state negative affect (NA), and state anxiety. Participants were then prompted to worry for 5 minutes, after which they completed the measures of PA, NA, and anxiety a second time. As expected, the participants experienced an increase in NA and anxiety, as well as a decrease in PA. GAD symptoms and trait worry severity were both found to predict changes in NA and anxiety, but neither predicted changes in PA. Further, the magnitude of the emotional changes was less pronounced than was observed in a previous in-person worry induction. Our findings suggest that an online worry induction can lead to reported increases in overall distress, and appear to reflect trait levels of worry severity and GAD symptoms. However, the intensity of the worry appears to be less pronounced than in-person induction procedures. Potential methods for improving an online worry induction will be discussed.
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    What maintains generalized anxiety disorder? Examining intolerance of uncertainty and negative beliefs about worry
    (2022) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) experience excessive and chronic worry over a variety of daily events. If left untreated, GAD tends to be chronic and cause difficulties in daily functioning. Therefore, understanding the factors that cause and maintain GAD is important to allow for the effective treatment of the disorder. The Metacognitive Model, Intolerance of Uncertainty Model, and Emotional Dysregulation Model each implicate specific mechanisms as the casual and maintaining factor in GAD. Existing research has shown negative beliefs about worry (NBW), intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and fear of emotions to be associated with GAD. However, the existing research is primarily cross-sectional, which does not allow researchers to determine whether these beliefs cause and maintain GAD. The present longitudinal study examined whether NBW, IU, fear of emotions, negative problem orientation, and cognitive avoidance predict worry severity and GAD symptoms at follow-up. Undergraduate psychology students, pre-screened for high levels of worry, completed a series of online self-report measures assessing levels of worry, GAD symptoms, NBW, IU fear of emotions, negative problem orientation, and cognitive avoidance. Participants (N = 372) returned 4-months later to complete the same series of questionnaires. Multiple regression analyses revealed that NBW was the only mechanism to consistently emerge as a predictor of pathological worry and GAD symptoms cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Exploratory analyses revealed that changes in NBW and IU were the only mechanisms to predict changes in GAD at follow-up. These findings have implications for the understanding and treatment of GAD.
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    What maintains generalized anxiety disorder? Examining intolerance of uncertainty and negative beliefs about worry
    (2022) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) experience excessive and chronic worry over a variety of daily events. If left untreated, GAD tends to be chronic and cause difficulties in daily functioning. Therefore, understanding the factors that cause and maintain GAD is important to allow for the effective treatment of the disorder. The Metacognitive Model, Intolerance of Uncertainty Model, and Emotional Dysregulation Model each implicate specific mechanisms as the casual and maintaining factor in GAD. Existing research has shown negative beliefs about worry (NBW), intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and fear of emotions to be associated with GAD. However, the existing research is primarily cross-sectional, which does not allow researchers to determine whether these beliefs cause and maintain GAD. The present longitudinal study examined whether NBW, IU, fear of emotions, negative problem orientation, and cognitive avoidance predict worry severity and GAD symptoms at follow-up. Undergraduate psychology students, pre-screened for high levels of worry, completed a series of online self-report measures assessing levels of worry, GAD symptoms, NBW, IU fear of emotions, negative problem orientation, and cognitive avoidance. Participants (N = 372) returned 4-months later to complete the same series of questionnaires. Multiple regression analyses revealed that NBW was the only mechanism to consistently emerge as a predictor of pathological worry and GAD symptoms cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Exploratory analyses revealed that changes in NBW and IU were the only mechanisms to predict changes in GAD at follow-up. These findings have implications for the understanding and treatment of GAD.
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    When worriers avoid their thoughts: cognitive avoidance predicts comorbid symptoms
    (2022) Parkinson, Sydney; Penney, Alexander
    Previous research has shown that generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is associated with several dysfunctional cognitive thinking styles and beliefs. While these different thinking styles and beliefs have been associated with GAD symptoms, they may also play a role in comorbid symptoms. Therefore, this study examined which dysfunctional thinking styles and beliefs common to GAD are associated with a range of emotional disorder symptoms in a group of chronic worriers. Specifically, we examined symptoms of anxiety-related disorders, depression, and bipolar disorder. A sample of undergraduate students, pre-screened for a high degree of worry (N = 565), completed online self-report measures. Questionnaires assessed symptoms of the following disorders: GAD, social anxiety disorder (SAD), panic disorder (PD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), health anxiety (HA), depression, and bipolar disorder. Dysfunctional thinking styles and beliefs measured include: metacognitions, intolerance of uncertainty, cognitive avoidance, negative problem orientation, fear of depression, and fear of anxiety. Although different thinking styles and beliefs were associated with each set of symptoms, regression analyses revealed that cognitive avoidance emerged as the only significant predictor across all symptom categories, with the exception of GAD. Although cognitive avoidance has been primarily explored within the GAD literature, these findings suggest that future research should also examine cognitive avoidance in SAD, PD, PTSD, OCD, HA, depression, and bipolar disorder. Additionally, when treating these disorders, or when working with anxious clients with comorbid disorders, therapists may wish to consider targeting cognitive avoidance, such as through written exposure exercises.